Issues
These introductions are highlights from Congressional Research Service reports. Click “Read More” to find out more about the subject and for a link to the full report.
Climate Change
Carbon Cycle
Carbon is stored in the atmosphere, oceans, vegetation, and the soil. The exchange, or flux, of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface is called the carbon cycle. Congress may opt to consider how land management practices, such as afforestation, conservation tillage, and other techniques, might increase the net flux of carbon from the atmosphere to the land surface. Congress may consider incorporating what is known about the carbon cycle into its legislative strategies, and may also evaluate whether the global carbon cycle is sufficiently well understood so that the consequences of long-term policies aimed at mitigating global climate change are fully appreciated.
Read More...Climate Change: Science and Policy Implications
Almost all scientists agree that the Earth’s climate is changing, having warmed by 0.6 to 0.9 degrees Celsius (1.1 to 1.6 degrees Fahrenheit) since the Industrial Revolution. Science indicates that the Earth’s global average temperature is now approaching, or possibly has passed, the warmest experienced since human civilizations began to flourish about 12,000 years ago. During the 20th Century, some areas became wetter while others experienced more drought. Most climate scientists conclude that humans have induced a large part of the climate change since the 1970s.
Read More...Recommended Reports on Climate Change
Get more detailed information about climate change compiled by SEA.
Read More...Voluntary Carbon Offsets
Businesses and individuals are buying carbon offsets to reduce their “carbon footprint” or to categorize an activity as “carbon neutral.” A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction, or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Read More...Education
Education
An important aspect of U.S. efforts to maintain and improve economic competitiveness is the existence of a capable scientific and technological workforce. Discussions have centered on the quality of science and mathematics education and training and on the scientific knowledge of those students entering other disciplines. Even students pursuing nonscientific and nonmathematical specialties are likely to require basic knowledge of scientific and technological applications for effective participation in the workforce.
Read More...STEM Education Issues
There is growing concern that the United States is not preparing a sufficient number of students, teachers, and practitioners in the areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). A large majority of secondary school students fail to reach proficiency in math and science, and many are taught by teachers lacking adequate subject matter knowledge.
Read More...Energy
Alternative Fuels and Advanced Technology Vehicles
Alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles are seen by proponents as integral to improving urban air quality, decreasing dependence on foreign oil, and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases.
Read More...Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards
The Arab oil embargo of 1973-1974 and the subsequent tripling in the price of crude oil brought into sharp focus the fuel inefficiency of U.S. automobiles. New car fleet fuel economy had declined from 14.8 miles per gallon (mpg) in model year (MY) 1967 to 12.9 mpg in 1974. In the search for ways to reduce dependence on imported oil, automobiles were an obvious target. The rise in crude oil and gasoline prices since the winter of 2006 has renewed the focus on U.S. fuel consumption in the transportation sector. Wider concerns over greenhouse gas emissions and climate change have contributed to interest in reducing fossil fuel consumption and improving the efficiency of the U.S. transportation sector.
Read More...Energy Policy
Energy policy continues to be a major legislative issue, world and domestic demand for oil remained strong, and other factors have placed pressure on gasoline prices and deliverability in the United States. Energy policy issues of continuing interest include Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards for passenger vehicles; improving U.S. energy infrastructure, including pipelines and refineries; seeking effective means to promote energy conservation using currently available technologies; and developing new technologies and alternative fuels.
Read More...Fuel Ethanol: Background and Policy Public Issues
Ethanol plays a key role in policy discussions about energy, agriculture, taxes, and the environment. In the United States it is mostly made from corn; in other countries it is often made from cane sugar. Fuel ethanol is generally blended in gasoline to reduce emissions, increase octane, and extend gasoline stocks. Recent high oil and gasoline prices have led to increased interest in alternatives to petroleum fuels for transportation.
Read More...Nuclear Energy Policy
Nuclear energy policy issues facing Congress include the implementation of federal incentives for new commercial reactors, radioactive waste management policy, research and development priorities, power plant safety and regulation, and security against terrorist attacks.
Read More...Recommended Reports on Energy
Get more detailed information about climate change compiled by SEA.
Read More...Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard
Renewable energy portfolio standards (RPS) require retail energy suppliers to provide a minimum amount of electricity from renewable sources or purchase credits that represent an equivalent amount of renewable energy production. RPS proponents contend that a national system of tradable credits would enable retail suppliers in states with fewer resources to comply at the least cost by purchasing credits from organizations in states with a surplus of low-cost production. Opponents counter that regional differences in availability, amount, and types of renewable energy resources would make a federal RPS unfair and costly.
Read More...Environment
Endangered Species Act and Sound Science
The adequacy of the science supporting implementation of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) is receiving increased congressional attention. While some critics accuse agencies responsible for implementing the ESA of using “junk science,” others counter that decisions that should rest on science are instead being dictated by political concerns.
Read More...Massachusetts v. EPA
On April 2, 2007, the Supreme Court handed down Massachusetts v. EPA, its first pronouncement on climate change. By a narrow 5-4 margin, the Court held three things: that (1) Massachusetts had standing to sue, (2) the Clean Air Act (CAA) authorizes EPA to regulate emissions from new motor vehicles on the basis of their climate change impacts, and (3) the act does not authorize EPA to inject policy considerations into its decision whether to so regulate.
Read More...Health
Embryonic Stem Cell Research
The use and procurement of embryonic stem cells has been a controversial issue in federal science policy. Some have argued that adult stem cells (from bone marrow or umbilical cord blood) should be pursued instead of embryonic stem cells because they believe the derivation of stem cells from embryos is ethically unacceptable. The NIH Director and many other scientists believe adult stem cells should not be the sole target of research because of important scientific and technical limitations. Several states have moved forward with their own initiatives to encourage or provide funding for stem cell research, and many others are considering similar action.
Read More...Genetic Discrimination
Collectively, genetic diseases and common diseases with a genetic component pose a significant public health burden. Genetic testing may both facilitate and be inhibited by the potential for genetic discrimination.
Read More...Genetic Testing: Scientific Background for Policy Makers
Science is only beginning to unlock the complex nature of the interaction between genes and the environment in common disease, and their respective contributions to the disease process. The information gleaned from the Human Genome Project will help, and is currently helping, scientists and clinicians to identify common genetic variation that contributes to disease.
Read More...Medicaid Managed Care: An Overview and Key Issues for Congress
Medicaid is one of the largest major domestic entitlement programs in the United States today. This report provides an overview of Medicaid managed care. It includes a discussion of the major features of both the managed care and the traditional fee-for-service delivery systems in Medicaid.
Read More...Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA)
The Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA), first enacted in 1992 and reauthorized twice, gives the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) a revenue source — fees paid by the pharmaceutical manufacturers — to supplement, not replace, direct appropriations.
Read More...State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP)
The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 97; P.L. 105-33) established the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) under a new Title XXI of the Social Security Act. The program offers federal matching funds to states and territories to provide health insurance to certain low-income children. Although specific requirements apply to eligibility, benefits, and beneficiary cost-sharing, as described below, these rules can be modified via waiver authority provided in Section 1115 of the Social Security Act.
Read More...Innovation
Industrial Competitiveness and Technological Advancement: Debate Over Government Policy
There is ongoing interest in the pace of U.S. technological advancement due to its influence on U.S. economic growth, productivity, and international competitiveness. Congressional action has mandated specific technology development programs and obligations in federal agencies that did not initially support such efforts. Many programs were created based upon what individual committees judged appropriate within the agencies over which they had authorization or appropriation responsibilities.
Read More...Net Neutrality: Background and Issues
The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet to ensure equal access and non-discriminatory treatment, is referred to as “net neutrality. ”Concern over whether it is necessary to take steps to ensure access to the Internet for content, services, and applications providers, as well as consumers, and if so, what these should be, is a major focus in the debate over telecommunications reform.
Read More...Patent Reform: Issues in Biomedical and Software Industries
Patent ownership is perceived as an incentive to the technological advancement that leads to economic growth. As such, the number of patent applications and grants has grown significantly, as have the type and breadth of inventions that can be patented. Innovators in biomedical industries tend to see patent protection as critically important as a way to prohibit competitors from appropriating the results of a company’s research and development efforts. In contrast, the nature of software development is such that inventions often are cumulative and new products generally embody numerous patentable inventions. As a result, it may be expected that distinct industries might react differently to the various patent reform proposals currently under consideration by Congress.
Read More...Technology Transfer: Use of Federally Funded Research and Development
The federal government spends approximately one third of its annual research and development budget for intramural R&D. Congress has established a system to facilitate the transfer of technology to the private sector and to state and local governments. Despite this, use of federal R&D results has remained restrained, although there has been a significant increase in private sector interest and activities over the past several years.
Read More...National Defense
Proliferation Control Regimes: Background and Status
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD), especially in the hands of radical states and terrorists, represent a major threat to U.S. national security interests. Multilateral regimes were established to restrict trade in nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and missile technologies, and to monitor their civil applications.
Read More...Research and Research Management
Federal Research and Development Funding: FY2008
The Bush Administration requested $142.7 billion in federal research and development (R&D) funding for FY2008. As in the recent past, the FY2008 proposed increase over the FY2007 funding level is due to significant funding increases in the Department of Defense (DOD); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA’s) space vehicles development program; and the continuation of the American Competitiveness Initiative (ACI).
Read More...National Institutes of Health (NIH): Organization, Funding, and Congressional Issues
The National Institutes of Health is the focal point for federal health research. It uses its $28.5 billion budget to support more than 200,000 scientists and research personnel working at over 3,100 institutions across the United States and abroad as well as to conduct biomedical and behavioral research and research training at its own facilities.
Read More...National Science Foundation: An Overview
The National Science Foundation (NSF) was created by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. The NSF has the broad mission of supporting science and engineering in general and funding basic research across many disciplines. The agency provides support for investigator-initiated, merit-reviewed, competitively selected awards, state-of-the-art tools, and instrumentation and facilities.
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